• Labelling terms^[28]: Regulated by the EU and international bodies, these are quality indicators providing information regarding the origin, production methods, and authenticity of olive oil. Apart from the common labelling of olive oil (e.g. EVOO, refined olive oil), the most common labelling terms include:
• Certification of organic product: Organic olive oil labelling certifies that it was produced using organic farming methods and without the use of chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, GMOs). In the EU, products carrying the organic logo must be accompanied by information such as:

1. the control body/authority that inspected the product and decided that it fulfils the organic certification requirements.
2. the location where the agricultural raw materials were produced.

Image 12 – Organic labelling – Source: Freepik.com

• Environmental labelling: The olive oil container must contain information on its correct disposal based on its composition (e.g. glass, metal). This information is presented in the form of a numerical code (e.g. GL70 for glass, PET1 for plastic, etc.).
• Minimum Durability Date: Also known as "Best Before" or "TMC", indicates the date until which olive oil is expected to retain its specific qualities (taste, aroma, appearance, etc.) when stored under proper conditions.
• Nutrition labelling: It is the standardized presentation of nutrition information on olive oil bottles, intended to inform consumers about their nutritional properties. It must contain the following mandatory values: energy, fats, saturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, and salt (per 100 ml).
• Production batch: A number that serves as a unique identifier for a particular production run, allowing for tracking, quality control, and traceability of the olive oil products within that batch.
• Protected Destination of Origin (PDO): It indicates that all production procedures of the olive oil (cultivation, processing, and bottling) have taken place in specific geographical regions. It was established by the EU (Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012) in 2012, under the quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs.
• Protected Geographical Indication (PGI): This label connects the olive oil products to the specific characteristics of a geographical region. It means that at least one of the production stages has taken place in an area that is renowned for a specific characteristic (e.g., a region that has been known since ancient times to be a major producer of olive oil or has a rare olive tree variety).
• Storage conditions^[29]: Refer to the environmental factors that affect the olive oil’s quality, stability, and shelf life during its storage. Such factors can be:
• Light exposure: According to studies, when olive oils are stored under light conditions, they experience a decrease in antioxidants. To preserve its properties better, olive oil must be stored in a dark place. It’s not accidental that olive oil is being sold by companies in dark green bottles, which eliminates over-exposure to light.
• Oxidative stress: the degradation process caused by exposure to oxygen, light, or heat, leading to the loss of quality, flavor, and nutritional value over time.
• Oxygen (air): Oxygen-rich conditions, like light exposure, similarly affect olive oil. They can affect its nutritional and sensory qualities as they decrease its antioxidants and cause rancidity.
• Temperature: It should be within the range of 12°C-18°C (54°F- 64°F). If the storage temperature is below 12 °C, it may cause it to solidify, and if it’s above 18°C, it can accelerate oxidation.
• Thermal stability: It refers to olive oil’s ability to resist chemical changes and degradation when exposed to high temperatures, making it suitable for cooking and preserving its nutritional properties.
• Type of container: Concerning exposure to oxygen and light, the preferred olive oil containers are dark glass bottles or stainless steel.
• Supply chain terms^[30]
• Bottling/Packaging: Inserting olive oil into containers and applying it according to their content labels.
• Distribution: The process of sending/selling olive oil products to wholesalers, exporters, and retailers.
• Extraction: The process of crushing olives to extract oil.
• Harvesting: The mechanical or manual process of collecting olives from trees.
• Labelling/Certification: Applying labels on olive oil containers that certify the product’s quality and origin.
• Producer (Grower): The individual or cooperative responsible for the cultivation and harvesting of olive oils.
• Retail: Final olive oil products are being sold to stores and online.
• Storage: The process of maintaining olive oil products in specific types of containers and conditions.
• Types of packaging^[31]: Based on the information presented above, it is easy to understand that olive oil packaging plays a significant role in preserving its quality, flavour, and shelf life. The accepted packaging for olive oil is as follows:
• Bag-in-Box (BiB): These are oxygen-barrier bags contained in cardboard boxes. They are ideal for bulk sales of olive oil. Oxygen is prevented from entering the bag when dispensed into it, thus allowing long-term storage. Additionally, they are lightweight, making them easier for transportation. This philosophy is like stand-up pouches used for olive oil storage, but these pouches lack the cardboard box surrounding them and thus make them prone to poking.
• Ceramic containers: These are rarely used due to their heavy weight and expensive material, but when they are used, they are for premium olive oils as they offer excellent protection against light and oxygen. Moreover, they are very market-friendly as they provide a sense of superiority for the contained olive oil product.
• Dark glass bottles: Commonly used for EVOO. This type is best for retail sales and consumer use. To enhance sustainability, it must be made from recyclable materials and be adaptable to reusability/recyclability.
• Metal containers: Made from tinplate or aluminium, this type of packaging is ideal for the transportation and storage of olive oil. The containers must be coated from the inside with food-grade lacquer to avoid corrosion.

Image 13 – Metal packaging of olive oil – Source: Freepik.com

• Multi-layer single-dose sachets: Made from multi-layer flexible materials, they can contain small quantities of olive oil (5- 20ml).
• Plastic bottles (PET or HDPE): Ideal for refined or pomace olive oils as they do not offer great protection from light and oxygen exposure. They are a cheap alternative, but which is not suitable for long-term storage.
• Stainless-steel containers: Ideal for long-term storage of olive oil, but not practical for consumer use. Stainless steel containers are air-tight and control temperature better than other types of packaging.
• Tetra Brik/Tetra Prisma: Plastic-coated paperboard aluminium foil laminate packaging, which is airtight and opaque. These characteristics make it ideal for olive oil packaging.